Wednesday, November 27, 2019

Survey Of Wireless Computing Essays - Wireless Networking

Survey of Wireless Computing Survey of Wireless Computing School Of Computer Science Florida International University Abstract Wireless technology can provide many benefits to computing including faster response to queries, reduced time spent on paperwork, increased online time for users, just-in-time and real time control, tighter communications between clients and hosts. Wireless Computing is governed by two general forces: Technology, which provides a set of basic building blocks and User Applications, which determine a set of operations that must be carried out efficiently on demand. This paper summarizes technological changes that are underway and describes their impact on wireless computing development and implementation. It also describes the applications that influence the development and implementation of wireless computing and shows what current systems offer. 1 Introduction Wireless computing is the topic of much conversation today. The concept has been around for some time now but has been mainly utilizing communication protocols that exist for voice based communication. It is not intended to replace wired data communication but instead to be utilized in areas that it would be otherwise impossible to communicate using wires. Only recently has the industry been taking steps to formulate a standard that is more suitable to data transmission. Some the problems to be overcome are: (1) Data Integrity - relatively error free transmission, (2) Speed - as close as possible to the speed of current wired networks, (3) Protection - making sure that the data now airborne is encoded and cannot be tapped by unwelcome receivers, (4) Compatibility - ensuring that the many protocols that sure to be created subscribe to a standard to allow inter-operability, (5) Environmentally safe - strengths of electromagnetic radiation must be kept within normal levels. In our study of the theories and implementation concerns of wireless computing, we found that it is being treated in an object oriented fashion. Scientists and development crews, including the IEEE, are doing their best to implement wireless connectivity without changing the existing computer hardware. As a result, a lot of focus is on using existing computer hardware and software to convert data to a format compatible with the new hardware which will be added to the computer using ports or PCMCIA connections that already exist. This means that wireless communication will be transparent to the user if and when wireless computing is utilized on a wide scale. Wireless computing applications covers three broad areas of computing today. Replacement of normal wired LAN's need to retain the speed and reliability found in wired LAN's. Creation of semipermanent LAN's for quick and easy setup without the need for running wires. This would be necessary for events such as earthquakes. The last category is that of mobile computing. With advent of PCMCIA cards, notebook computers are being substituted for regular desktop machines with complete connectivity of the desktop machine. However, you lose the connectivity when out of the office unless you have a wireless means of communicating. On the compatibility issue, the ability to mix wireless brands on a single network is not likely to come soon. The IEEE Standards Committee is working on a wireless LAN standard -- 802.11, which is an extension of the Ethernet protocol. Because the field of wireless communication is so broad, the IEEE was not able to set a standard by the time private researchers were ready to test their theories hoping to set the standard for others to follow. 2 Methods There are a few methods of wireless communication being theorized and tested. (1) Radio: This is the method that makes use of standard radio waves in the 902 MHz to 928 MHz frequency range. Although these frequencies are well used, methods have been developed to ensure data integrity. Spread spectrum transmission of data is a method where the transmitter will send information simultaneously out over many frequencies in the range increasing the change that all data will eventually reach the receiver. Frequency hopping is an additional measure that also enables data security. The 26 MHz range of frequencies is further divided in to channels. The transmitter then sends out data hopping from one channel to the next in a certain pattern known to the receiver. Within each channel, spread spectrum transmission can be used

Sunday, November 24, 2019

Examples of Z-score Calculations

Examples of Z-score Calculations One type of problem that is typical in an introductory statistics course is to find the z-score for some value of a normally distributed variable. After providing the rationale for this, we will see several examples of performing this type of calculation. Reason for Z-scores There are an infinite number of normal distributions. There is a single standard normal distribution. The goal of calculating a z - score is to relate a particular normal distribution to the standard normal distribution. The standard normal distribution has been well-studied, and there are tables that provide areas underneath the curve, which we can then use for applications. Due to this universal use of the standard normal distribution, it becomes a worthwhile endeavor to standardize a normal variable. All that this z-score means is the number of standard deviations that we are away from the mean of our distribution. Formula The formula that we will use is as follows: z (x - ÃŽ ¼)/ ÏÆ' The description of each part of the formula is: x is the value of our variableÃŽ ¼ is the value of our population mean.ÏÆ'Â  is the value of the population standard deviation.z is the z-score. Â   Examples Now we will consider several examples that illustrate the use of the z-score formula. Suppose that we know about a population of a particular breed of cats having weights that are normally distributed. Furthermore, suppose we know that the mean of the distribution is 10 pounds and the standard deviation is 2 pounds. Consider the following questions: What is the z-score for 13 pounds?What is the z-score for 6 pounds?How many pounds corresponds to a z-score of 1.25? Â   For the first question, we simply plug x 13 into our z-score formula. The result is: (13 – 10)/2 1.5 This means that 13 is one and a half standard deviations above the mean. The second question is similar. Simply plug x 6 into our formula. The result for this is: (6 – 10)/2 -2 The interpretation of this is that 6 is two standard deviations below the mean. For the last question, we now know our z -score. For this problem we plug z 1.25 into the formula and use algebra to solve for x: 1.25 (x – 10)/2 Multiply both sides by 2: 2.5 (x – 10) Add 10 to both sides: 12.5 x And so we see that 12.5 pounds corresponds to a z-score of 1.25.

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Ethics and Public Administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Ethics and Public Administration - Essay Example Ethics are considered as accountability principles, which the public use to scrutinize government people s work in public sector. Government people s and public manager’s decision and code of conduct are directed by ethical principles that are public’s perception of the correct actions by public managers and government people. Therefore, to ensure effectiveness and transparency in their public work, government people subscribe to various ethics theories. Government ethics debates centers on the question of whether it is moral and ethical for government people to deceive the public to acquire and maintain their power. Whereas, people cringe at the legitimating mendacity though by government people s, people have the true Walzer’s admonition that â€Å"no government people can survive in politics without getting their hands dirty. The discussion will analyze the official deception defense as outlined by Machiavelli and Walzer, ethical theories that guide political behavior and code of conduct and finally outline why government people are justified to get their hands dirty. Discussion Any debate concerning ethics in public management is fraught with controversial issues such as the apolitical service culture, conflict of interest among others. Having public ethics and theories help to put distinction that ensure that government people s act based on set moral and ethical principle. Ethics also put an extra burden on government people s concerning their behavior conduct; therefore, government ethics strive to create an increasingly open atmosphere within the public operations, (Bowie, 2002, p. 52). Ethical issues that government people s experience are complex and dynamic and these issues are unique to public service that demands public managers to take choices concerning ethical issues on regular basic. Whereas people commonly believe that government people s are naturally challenged by telling the truth, very few citizens would like to conce de that government people are on certain occasions justified to get their hands dirty, (Oberdiek, 2006, p.55). However, there are compelling circumstances and ethics on special occasions that require government people s to lie not to jeopardize public interests. As early mentioned, public services is guided by ethical theories based on the nature of their public work, for instance, some political service and behavior support deontological ethics theory. Deontological theory is a duty or obligation grounded ethics, and deontologists assert that ethical rules bind government people s to their duty and they consider the right or wrong aspect of the action and not the effects of the action consequences, (Coady, 2006, p. 31). Deontologists are concerned with the government people s’ fidelity to principles and overlook the results or outcomes of a certain act, in their moral worth determination. Kantianism or the ethical theory of Kant is considered deontological because it mainly revolves around an individual’s obligations instead of their emotional feeling and end objectives – the center of this concept is the duty of a government people or what he should do in a certain situation. Kant’s ethical theory asserts that true ethical and moral acts are grounded on the highest sense of duty and the right and fair actions but not on the self-interest or highest utility on a broader aspect (irrespective of the possible effects for government people